Relationship between Trade and Development

Introduction/Background on trade Trade and development relate considerably. They are able to influence the fates and providences of each other. Modern techniques of transportation, transactions, and communications have enhanced the growth of international trade.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Relationship between Trade and Development specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Records retrieved from GATT, WTO, OPEC, and other international trade organizations have shown tremendous relationships between trade and development (World Bank 364). This report discusses how trade can be a pro-developmental provision and the relationship between the two groups. Usually, the relationship between a country’s trade and its economic development has always been a subject of interest. For example, developing states possess strong trade relations with other countries globally. Views of Different Schools of Thought According to Ad am Smith in his classical theory, free trade often leads to efficient use of a country’s resources. Contextually, it is important to agree that free trade improves economic performance by increasing competition of the concerned entities. Current prospects for a new WTO agreement are to enhance international trade by uplifting probable barriers, which the GS would like to keep. Different parts of the world will fare well while Africa will benefit through magnificent developments. Additionally, various countries should embrace the aspects of specialization and division of labor in order to enhance their output. For example, it is agreeable that trade and development are linked either positively or negatively depending on how a country establishes and utilizes its trade opportunities. Trade triggers the aspects of development since different entities can attain their respective developmental needs through it. Numerous countries have attained their developmental ideas and materia ls through integrated trade and other relevant provisions. It is possible for a given country to attain what it does not produce through trade (Greenaway 49). For example, these provisions have been supported by GATT/WTO, OECD, OPEC, and other prominent organizations established to promote the aspects of global trade and other concerned provisions.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Different hypothesis, theories, and models Numerous theories exist in order to unveil the relationship between trade and development. Additionally, there are particular theories that explain various aspects of trade and development. These have helped in relating the two factions together and enhancing the relationships alleged between them. Additionally, hypothesis has been formulated to trigger viable research regarding the alleged relationships. It is important to enhance the aspects of trade and development in order to propel the prosperity of the concerned countries, regions, and organizations. Theoretically, trade enhances development in various organizations, regions, and countries. This is a critical concern when scrutinized critically. It is from this context that the entire business prospects and other relevant provisions lie. Additionally, trade models can influence the nature of development, which a country assumes. Arguments for and against the above theories Theories supporting the relationship between trade and development are vital in this context. For example, it is agreeable that numerous countries globally have exploited the opportunities fronted by trade in order to develop tremendously. This has been quite important in diverse contexts. Hypothetically, it is important to illuminate the alleged relationships (UNCTD 65). Nonetheless, there are arguments that might defy the positions assumed by the mentioned theories. It is agreeable that there can be no relat ionship between trade and development as alleged by some theories. Some countries can develop minus the assumed trade. There are various avenues through which organizations, entities, and some countries can develop minus trade. Current issues facing trade and development relationships There are various issues facing trade and developmental relationships. Some of these factors have contributed negatively to the mentioned provisions. Contextually, they have affected the wellbeing of the alleged relationships between trade and development indicated before. Contextually, market access is one of the issues affecting the aspects of trade. For example, access to markets in developed countries can enhance the aspects of development thus help in reducing poverty. This indicates how trade relates positively to development. The current prospects for the new WTO are to enhance the flowage of trade among the member countries globally. For examples, several Asian, American, African, and European countries have joined the organization in order to open up their markets, enhance international trade, and promote their developmental issues. Previously, GATT was signed in 1946 and lasted until 1993.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Relationship between Trade and Development specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The organization was then replaced by the WTO in 1995 to open up markets and enhance accessibility. For example, WTO handles the global rules of trade amid nations. Principally, it ensures that trade flows as efficiently, predictably, and liberally. It thus promotes the relationship between trade and development. Additionally, various countries are influenced by varying political factors. This eventually affects the aspects of development in case such factors are unconstructive. The situation is critical in various contexts (Babkina 84). The political situation of any given region can affect the mentioned de velopment besides the ability to hinder the needed universal trade provisions. It is recommended that the concerned countries endeavoring to enhance their trading opportunities should adopt substantial political provisions in order to favor their trading endeavors. Nevertheless, for the least-developed countries (most of the African countries for example), the principal problem is not market access, but inadequate production capacity to attain new trading opportunities. Another issue influencing the relationship between trade and development is the trade barriers. For example, high tariffs imposed on agricultural goods and other prominent commodities have discouraged diversification and developmental endeavors. Additionally, strong and complex tariffs have blocked the mentioned market access and development provisions. Another hindrance to the mentioned relationship is the lack of capacity. For example, some countries have poor infrastructures. This eventually hinders the aspects of trade and other relevant developmental issues. Another issue facing the trade and development relationships is the legal matters governing the aspects of trade. These can be enacted locally or internationally as evident in the GATT and WTO’s contexts. Uncooperative legal matters can hinder the aspects of trade. This will eventually affect trading provisions. It is crucial to consider these cases in the context of trade and development (Lee 36). Similarly, the rules set by international trade organizations have influenced the relationships between trade and development (Narlikar 59). There are some countries which are barred by such legislations in the context of trading. Some countries have been banned from international trade due to misconduct or failure to adhere to some stipulated rules and regulations.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More This provision has eventually affected the aspects of development in such countries. Additionally, independence attained by various countries has also influenced the aspects of trade. For example, development was historically perceived as a problem to be solved by foreign aids and loans from developed countries in the East and West. Another considerable issue in this context is the aspects of technology. Technology has enhanced transactions, international cash transfers, communication aspects, and transportation of commodities from one region to the next. This provision has eventually influenced development as alleged earlier. Through technology and trade, it is possible to attain development (OECD 63). Any factor that influences the provisions of trade eventually influences developmental issues. Another issue is globalization. It is evident that globalization has enhanced the aspects of international trade hence eventually influencing developmental issues in various countries, regi ons, and organizations. Globalization has massively influenced the relationships between trade and development by expanding their provisions and elaborating the nature of the concerned relationships. Concurrently, social and cultural issues can actually influence the relationship between trade and development (Ajami 46). Various communities, regions, and countries have their social and cultural provisions, which can influence their participation in trade and other relevant provisions. Negative social and cultural provisions have always hindered trade and developmental issues. Personal Opinion Critically, it is important to agree that trade and development have considerable relationships as indicated earlier. It is obvious that the promotion of trade will eventually enhance developmental provisions despite the challenges. This is a critical provision as exhibited before. The approaches given to these factors have influenced their fates in the trade and developmental contexts. This is a critical provision indicating the relationship between trade and development. The schools of thought bestowed to this topic have considerable disparities in their provisions. No approach is appropriate as alleged; nonetheless, it is important for each provision to discern prospected relationships between trade and development. Various opening markets have influence the aspects of trade and operations of WTO. Continents like Africa have benefited considerable from the aspects of trade and development. Conclusion Conclusively, there is substantial relationship between trade and development. Several schools of thought have tried to discern this allegation. Nevertheless, theories, hypothesis, and models endeavoring to discern the relationship between trade and development are evident in this context. Concurrently, there are current issues facing trade and developmental relationships. Evidently, trade can be a pro-developmental provision. Works Cited Ajami, Riad. International Busines s: Theory and Practice. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2006. Print. Babkina, Ankras. World Trade Organization: issues and bibliography. Huntington, NY, Nova Science Publication, 2000. Print. Greenaway, David. The World Economy: Global Trade Policy 2011. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. Print. Lee, Byung-Hwa. Fdi from Developing Countries: A Vector for Trade and Development. Paris: OECD Publishing, 2002. Print. Narlikar, Amrita. The World Trade Organization: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford Univ. Press, 2005. Print. OECD. World Economic Situation and Prospects 2010. New York, NY: United Nations, 2010. Print. UNCTD. Commodity Prices, Capital Flows and the Financing of Investment. New York, NY: United Nations, 2008. Print. World Bank. World development indicators 2010. Washington, DC: World Bank, 2009. Print. This essay on Relationship between Trade and Development was written and submitted by user D'KenNeraman1 to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Changing Caption Numbering in Microsoft Word

Changing Caption Numbering in Microsoft Word Changing Caption Numbering in Microsoft Word We’ve previously explained how to add captions to charts, tables and figures in Microsoft Word. But what should you do if the default caption style or numbering doesn’t suit your needs? Maybe, for example, your college style guide recommends a different formatting for captions than the standard style in Word. Or maybe you want to use an alternative numbering system. Luckily, this is all easy to achieve via the â€Å"Style† options in Word. Editing Caption Style If you want to use a different font for captions, you could go through them all changing this manually. However, it’s much quicker to change the caption style instead (instructions apply for Word 2007 and later): Go to the â€Å"Styles† section of the â€Å"Home† tab and find â€Å"Caption† Right click â€Å"Caption† and select â€Å"Modify† to open a new window The Styles menu. Pick the font and formatting options required Click â€Å"OK† to apply the new style Modifying the Caption style. If the â€Å"Caption† style isn’t showing in the â€Å"Home† tab, you may have to click the little arrow in the bottom corner to open the â€Å"Styles† sidebar. If it still isn’t showing, click â€Å"Options† here and make sure that â€Å"All styles† is selected in the â€Å"Select styles to show† menu. Style pane options. Creating a New Caption Style For even greater customization, you can even create a brand new caption style. To do this: Open the â€Å"Styles† sidebar and click the â€Å"New Style† button Creating a new style. In the new window, select â€Å"Caption† in the â€Å"Style based on† menu Select the font and formatting options required Type a name for your new style in the â€Å"Name† box (e.g., â€Å"Caption 2† or â€Å"Custom Caption†) Click â€Å"OK† to create your style To ensure that the font changes back to the paragraph style once you’ve written a caption and hit â€Å"Enter,† you may also want to select â€Å"Normal† from the â€Å"Style for following paragraph† menu. You can also create a new style via the style menu on the main ribbon by selecting Create a Style and clicking Modify to bring up the full set of style options. Creating a style via the main ribbon. Writing Custom Captions When you add captions using â€Å"Insert Caption,† Microsoft Word numbers them automatically according to the label assigned (e.g., â€Å"Figure 1,† Figure 2,† â€Å"Figure 3,† and so on). However, if you don’t want to use this numbering system (e.g., if you want captions in your dissertation to include the chapter number, so the figures in the first chapter are labelled â€Å"Figure 1a,† â€Å"Figure 1b,† â€Å"Figure 1c,† etc.) you’ll need to add captions manually. You can do this by selecting the relevant â€Å"Caption† style from the style menu, placing the cursor where you want the caption to appear in your document, and simply typing the caption desired. You can even use different caption styles for tables, charts and figures if you create a style for each! If you do, though, don’t forget that when adding a list of tables, charts or figures, you’ll need to select the relevant style when creating the list. To do this: Click â€Å"Insert Table of Figures† to open the menu Inserting a table of charts/figures. Click â€Å"Options† to open a new window Under the â€Å"Style† menu, pick the relevant caption style and click â€Å"OK† Custom caption options. Click â€Å"OK† in the main â€Å"Insert Table of Figures† menu to create your list You can then list each of the different caption types separately, which is useful if you have large numbers of illustrations, charts and tables that you want to keep distinct from one another.

Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 2

Law - Essay Example Throughout, the law treated the threat of physical injury as assault while battery was considered the complete contact to cause harm. This version of the distinction is no longer valid as compared to the physical contact hence null and void. For Hilder to be taken to the hospital after being hit by the husband with a chair leg by the husband Billy is a clear example of Assault or battery to mention. The act is worsened when Billy further exposes their violent acts to the public through putting a slap on the face of the nurse, which prompts the calling of the police to arrest Hilder’s husband. The arrest of Billy for assault is much in pace and if prosecuted would be liable because there is the medical evidence of physical injury and as well the two children aged five and eight also could act as witnesses to the aggravated violence case. This is because assault or battery are an example of the widely known criminal offenses given that their occurrence vividly brings to the mind s of the victims scenes of fight or violence in line of the aggravated acts (Brannigan 2012). Legally the two terms or concepts are quite distinct and hence their punishments are quite different with the determination of battery attracting vast penalty as compared to whether it is simply an assault. In their determination and proof against or for the parties concerned in the argument, have to clearly breakdown the concepts into their respective elements. In handling of this case we will look at the case clearly while even defining all the defenses available for the accuse persons and the look at the penalties to be faced in the cases of the sentences by the respective offenders (Gore 2007). The act by Billy on the wife Hilder will amount to assault due to the mere fact that the definition of assault and battery is nowadays not factually differentiated. Otherwise, the factual definition of assault as it remains in the other states is that the conviction for assault will still need th e existence of the criminal act since an assault will require a direct act to put another individual to a reasonable fear. This therefore dispels the notion of spoken words alone being considered assault not until the offender backs them up with relevant actions that make the recipient in a position of foreseeing imminent danger (Reddington & Kreisel 2005). For a person to be considered to have committed an assault the individual only needs to have shown the general intents, Billy though has gone further to hit both his wife and the nurse intensely injuring the wife after he pretends to be going to see the wife in the hospital which is the most unlikely case they would witness. It means that someone can hardly assault another person accidentally but they have to act in a manner likely to amount to a cause of terror to the offenders. Therefore, if an individual acts in a way that's considered dangerous to other people that can be enough to support assault charges, even if they didn't intend a particular harm to a particular individual which will be in the intention to scare or frighten the

Management and Organisational Behaviour Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words - 2

Management and Organisational Behaviour - Essay Example These are the guidelines that every organization in today’s era aims to establish in order to be successful. Motivation is the thing that gets people to work and perform better. It is the driving force for the employees. However, it is important to note that different people have different motivators in different stages of life. As highlighted by Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, there are five broad categories that might act as motivators for different people. These are Physiological Needs, Security Needs, Social Needs, Esteem Needs, and on top of the pinnacle lies the Self Actualization Need. Depending on the level an individual is, these needs act as motivators for him or her, result in satisfaction and consequently effects his or her performance. (Wagner, n.d.) Motivation will have almost no effect if the person involved has no intentions or is unable to do a job. Therefore, it is very important for the person who is in the managing or the leadership position to allocate the tasks depending on the person and the skills that he or she has. Proper execution of this is so important that if an employee is made to work on a particular task that he is unwilling or unable to do, then, even with motivators in place, it might back fire and result in depression and low morale. This would consequently lead to low overall performance. (Marques, n.d.) There has been a prevailing mindset in the managers that eliminating job dissatisfaction would result in job satisfaction for the employees. But this is not the case. As pointed out by the theorist Frederick Herzberg, job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction depend on different factors. (Herzberg, et al., 2009) Herzberg in his motivation theories highlights that job dissatisfaction is caused by factors such as unpleasant working conditions, poor or biased supervision, low salaries, improper policies, and so on. Eliminating these might remove job dissatisfaction

Black Box And White Box Comparison Computer Science Essay

Black Box And White Box Comparison Computer Science Essay Testing is an important activity for checking the correctness of system implementations. We need to find out bugs in the system on unit level as well as on the integration or system level of testing. At unit level, we use white box testing approach to find bugs in the developed code whereas at integration or system level we use black box testing approach to validate the system functionality. In this paper, we will focus on these two widely used black box and white box approaches of software testing. We will compare various features of both approaches and find out which approach is useful on different stages of testing to find bugs in the softwares. Software testing is an important component of software engineering field and very important technique for improving software quality. There are two main techniques for software testing, white box testing and black box testing. Black box testing deals with the functionality of the system and is based on the software requirements. Black box testing is performed in user perspective while giving some input data and getting the valid output. White box testing is concerned with the inner design and structure of the system. White box testing is very helpful to find bugs in the softwares at initial level of testing. A couple of papers describe the black box and white box testing techniques while highlighting different features of both techniques [1] [2]. These papers also tell the advantages and disadvantages of both approaches and explained on which stages these approaches can be used. The papers also mentioned the testing cost and the tester skills for both the testing types. In this paper, we will look into detail in black box and white box testing. We will highlight their main technique and different features for both approaches. Based on their features, we will take a comparison of both techniques and we will analyze which technique is feasible for testing on certain stages of the software testing. As white box testing is used on the unit level and black box testing is used in integration or system level testing. So, using only white box or black box testing is not sufficient to find all bugs in the software. Both approaches have their own importance in testing softwares and finding bugs on different levels of the software testing. This paper is organized as follows. Section 2 of this paper describes black box testing method in detail. Section 3 includes the detail of white box testing approach used to test software projects. Section 4 describes a comparison of both the testing approaches white box and black box testing. Section 5 concludes the paper. BLACK BOX TESTING Black box testing treats the system as a  black-box, so it doesnt explicitly use Knowledge of the internal structure or code. [1] Therefore black box testing is performed while giving inputs and getting the expected output. Black box testing verifies the correctness of the softwares behaviour and is referred as behaviour coverage. The focus of the black box testing is on functionality of the system. Black box testing requirement includes software requirements, uses cases only executable program and its data. These requirements are usually met during the middle phase of the development lifecycle when large pieces of code begin to operate together. Black box testing is performed when we do not have the source code. As the programming completes, its packaged as larger components of the code. This package is built by compiling, linking or binding the executable codes to demonstrate the collective code execution behaviour with inputs and outputs. [3] Here is the Black box testing diagram. Input Test data System Output Test results Diagram .1, Black box Testing Black Box Testing Techniques Developers usually focus on the positive testing by validating the expected behaviour of the code. Tester add values to black box testing by executing both positive and negative testing because the tester knows that most of the defects are found from the unexpected behaviour. Here are the techniques of Black box testing. Equivalence class technique In this technique the software data is divided into partitions of data and test cases are derived from it. This technique ensures that test cases are derived to cover partitioned data. According to this method one test case is enough for each partition to check the behaviour of the program. By using equivalence class technique test cases can be reduced because all test cases of a partition will not find any new faults in the program. The recommended black box approach for selecting equivalence class values includes values at the beginning, in the middle and end of the data range. We can understand this technique more with the help of the example. [3] Let us assume that a security system have to validate 5000 log on IDs when in production. Now tester can validate each logon IDs or on the other hand tester knows that there are only three categories of IDs clerks, supervisors, managers. Now sample from each category will be sufficient for the validation. Let us consider 50 logon IDs from each category. During validation if any of the 50 logon IDs for a given category is not accepted, increase the sample size of logon IDs for that category and continue testing. If the initial samples of 150 IDs for all three categories are correctly accepted then the tester has achieved the desired test results using only 3% of the possible test data. Boundary Value Analysis technique In this technique the analysis is extended of beginning and ending inputs value possibilities of an equivalence class. The boundary values are around the beginning and ending of a portion and functional errors from input and output data occurs around these boundaries. The boundary analysis begins by identifying smallest value increment in a specific equivalence class. This increment of smallest value is called boundary value epsilon. [3] It is used to calculate +/- value around the beginning and ending values in an equivalence class. If we take the above example then the boundary value for each category would be 49, 50, 51 for 50 value and 149, 150, 151 for 150 equivalence value. Equivalence classes remain smaller even by the addition of boundary test values. Expected result coverage Technique The expected result coverage technique focus on output test values for related input values. To get the expected results we need to find the business rules in the application requirement. The difference between expected results and actual results for any combination of input should cause further analysis to determine if the difference is faulty test design, unclear ambiguous rules or program error. [3] Error Guessing In this technique, Tester judge where bugs or errors can be hidden. Tester tests the application with the past experience and creates test cases to validate the different tasks. There is no specific tool used for this technique. Advantages of Black Box testing Here are the advantages to black box testing: Ease of Use Black Box testing is not involved in the inner functionality of the application so it is easy for the tester to create test cases by simple working through the application. Black box testers dont need high skills in programming rather low skilled persons can do black box testing. Quicker Test Case Development Test cases can be developed quickly because tester concerns only with the user interface. There is no need to identify the internal paths that may be involves in a specific process. The tester will cover the UI paths that a user may take so it makes quicker test development. [2] Simplicity Using black box testing even complex applications can be tested, that focuses on valid and invalid inputs and ensuring that the correct out puts are received. Issues of Black box testing The Followings are the few issues of black box testing approach. Fragility User interface interaction makes script fragile. The reason is because the UI may not be rendered constantly from time to time on different platforms. Unless the tool is capable dealing with difference in UI rendering, it is likely that test cases will fail to execute properly. [2] Lack of introspection One of the drawbacks of the black box testing is that it cannot look into inner logic of the application unlike the white box testing. Therefore black box testing can never test an application fully. Failure reason Another issue with the black box testing, it does not found the reason of the failure. It does not tell what causes the failure in the system. So pure black box testing does not guarantee 100% coverage of the tested component. WHITE BOX TESTING The white box testing involves the inner logic of the program and the test cases are constructed from the source code of the program. It is based on the knowledge of how the system is implemented. White box testing includes analyses of data flow, control flow, information flow, coding practice, exception and error handling within the system, to test the intended and unintended behaviour of the system. [1] White box testing requires access to the source code. When the code is developed, white box testing can be performed any time in the life cycle but it is good practice to perform white box testing during the unit level testing. The first step in white box testing is to analyze available design documentation, source code knowing what make software secure is a fundamental requirement. Second, to create tests that exploits software. Third thing is to perform testing effectively; testers need to know the techniques and tools used for the white box testing. White box testing normally do by the developers as an extension of code debugging activity. The developers usually focus on making the code work, which gives them the tendency to debug only the code they know works. Software testers add value to developer debugging activity by helping the developer plan and debug more of the code than usual. The more the logic test coverage attain while debugging, the fewer the defect will be discovered later by other kinds of testing. The earlier these defects can be discovered, the less expensive they are to correct. Research has not yet produced a white box approach that guarantees 100% logic test coverage for all situations. [3] Here is the diagram for white box testing. Static Analysis Manual Automated Inspection Walkthrough Symbolic Execution Static Verification Diagram .2, White Box Testing White Box Testing Techniques: White box testing verifies the correctness of the softwares statements, code paths, conditions, loops and data flow. The prerequisites of white box testing include the software requirements, use cases, the executable program, its data and its source code. Here are the techniques used for white box testing. Statement Coverage Technique This technique focuses on determining what percentage of the source code lines in a program has been executed. If there are 5,000 lines of source code in a program and you can determine manually or with a tool that you have executed 4,537 lines of source code, then you have achieved 90.7% statement coverage. A hypothesis in this context is that the higher the source code test coverage, the fewer will be the defects found later. The practical conclusion is the that new, unexecuted code lines are just a software time bomb waiting to explode at the most inopportune moment in production. [3] The question is not if they will explode, only the question is when. Branch coverage technique This technique focus on determining what percentage of source code branch (true/false) logic in a program has been executed. Suppose if there are 1,500 source code branch points in a program and we can determine manually or with a tool that we have executed 1,145 branches by counting true and false branch executions separately then we have achieved 76.3% branch point coverage. [3] The co-occurrence of unexecuted branches with unexecuted statements is found most often in untested error recovery logic. Testing simple condition branches before the compound condition branches requires fewer initial test actions. The developer needs to choose a test value that will force a true branch and any test value that will force a false branch, just two test values per branch. Compound Condition Coverage Technique This technique extends the branch coverage technique to branches with compound conditions, ones that contain combinations of Boolean operators AND, OR and NOT along with pairs of parenthesis, possible nested. In this technique, the challenge is to identify all the test value combinations that will evaluate to true and false for every simple condition and every Boolean combination of simple condition. Path Coverage Technique This technique focus on determining what percentage of source code paths in a program have been traversed completely. A source code path is the sequence of program statements from the first executable statement through a series of arithmetic, replacement input/out, branch and looping statements to a return/stop/end/exit statement. [3] If there are 943 different paths through a program and we can determine manually or with a tool that we have executed 766 of them, then we have achieved 81% path coverage. The underlying hypothesis is that the higher the path test coverage, the fewer will be the defect found later. Loop Coverage Technique This technique focus on determining what percentage of source code loop in a program has been cycled completely. In the programming languages, there are several loops like DO, FOR, WHILE and UNTIL. Some of the loops are a clever construct of IF statements and subsequent returns to these IF statements. The objective of the loop testing is to force the program through the loop zero time, one time, n/2 times (n is terminal loop value) n times and n+1 times. The one-time loop, n/2-time loop and n-time loop validate expected loop response at the beginning, middle and end of the longest loop. The zero-time and n+1 time loop tests for unexpected and inappropriate looping conditions. Advantages of White Box Testing Here is the list of the few common advantages of white box testing. Introspection Introspection is the ability to look inside the application and tester can identify objects programmatically. [2] It is helpful when UI changes frequently or the UI yet not known, It allows testing to proceed. In some situations it decreases the fragility of the test script provided the names of an object do not change. Stability White box testing delivers greater stability and reusability of test cases if the objects that include an application never change. Thoroughness White box testing is very helpful technique, where it is essential to know that every path has been thoroughly tested, that every possible internal interaction has been examined. [2] This technique gives tester the ability to be more thorough in terms of how much an application they can test. Issues with White box testing The issues with the white box testing are listed below: Complexity: The tester must have detailed programmatic knowledge of the application in order to test with white box testing technique. White box testing involves the internal logic of the applications code so this complexity requires highly skilled testers to develop test cases. Fragility Although introspection overcomes the issue of application changes breaking test scripts but the reality is that often the names of objects changes during product development. White box testing requires test scripts to be tightly tied to the underlying code of an application means that changes to the code will often cause white box test scripts to break. [2] Then it introduces a high degree of script maintenance into the testing process. Integration Due to the highly integrated nature of white box testing tools many do not provide support for more than one platform usually windows. In those companies where companies have applications that run on other platforms, they either need to use different tool or need to test manually. [2] COMPARING BLACK BOX AND WHITE BOX TESTING FEATURES Black box testing based on requirements, therefore also called behavioral or functional testing technique, whereas white box testing is based on the internal logic and structure of the project therefore also called structural testing. Black box testing creates test data without any aspect of the software structure, so this technique does not consider how the test object has been implemented but what its requirements are. On the other hand, in white box testing, the tests are derived from the structure of the tested object and tests are based on the actual implementation. [5] Black box testing methodology is used in integration level or system level because it does not need to look into source code but just need to execute a system by using input data and output result. On the other hand, white box testing is used for logical and analytic test in unit test level. Black box tester can be less technical in programming and has no bonds with the code so tester perception is very simple white box tester needs programming skills to identify and test all paths through the software. [3] In black box testing, test case can be designed as soon as the functional specifications are complete whereas in white box testing, test can be designed as the program code is developed. Black box tester used to verify contradiction in actual system and the specifications whereas white box tester chooses test case inputs to exercise paths through the code and determines the appropriate output. It reveals all errors hidden in the code. [6] Black box testing focuses on results and the user experience whereas white box testing focuses on the internal working and making sure that the application works as efficiently as possible. White box testing is time consuming especially when applied to the whole system but it directly identifies more bugs in the software. In black box testing, inputs need to be from large sample space to find expected results. There are some bugs that cannot be found using only black box or only white box testing. In black box, it is difficult to identify all possible inputs in the limited testing time so writing test cases is slow and difficult. In white box testing, it is not possible to test each and every path of the loop in a program so exhaustive testing is impossible for large systems. In black box testing some of the code may not be reachable without extraordinary measures, whereas white box testing does not tell if all the functionality has been implemented in the program. The comprehensive test coverage may be achieved only when black box and white box testing techniques are combined because both methodologies include various benefits of application testing. CONCLUSION As discussed above, Black box testing validates the functionality of the software and ensures that the system is working correctly according to the user requirements. Black box testing is less expensive as compare to white box testing and can be performed by the less technical individuals but Black box approach does not cover the comprehensive testing of the system. On the other hand, White box testing checks the internal structure, inner loops, conditions and logic of the code to verify the working of the code. White box testing is expensive and is performed by the skilled and technical individuals, but as the software size is getting huge, it is difficult to check out all parts of source code during integration or system level testing. As both testing methods have some pros and cons when applied on certain levels of testing. So using only one testing approach cannot guarantee bug free software. In the conclusion, we can say that the comprehensive testing of the system may be achieved by using both of the techniques for the software testing. White box testing can be used with black box testing to improve overall test effectiveness.

Spyware Essay -- Spyware Research Papers

Spyware I. Introduction Slowly but surely, the computer I use at home was getting slower and slower. Whenever I would connect to the Internet, simple tasks such as web browsing and checking e-mail would take longer amounts of time to complete than usual. Although my 56K modem was slow by today’s standards, I knew that it would not bottleneck the system while opening simple web sites such as Google. This was a shock to me since I pride myself on running a streamlined and clean computer. It was even more puzzling since the only continuously running program I allow is an Anti-Virus program. I checked the Windows Task Manager and to my surprise, my CPU usage was hovering around 80%, yet no other programs were running! I immediately started researching the problem on the Internet and quickly found the problem that matched my computer’s symptoms, spyware. I downloaded a spyware detection and removal utility; fortunately my problem was resolved. It detected three unique spyware programs runni ng on my computer and quickly removed them. My computer returned to normal operating speed and I felt safe knowing no more spyware was on my computer. II. What is Spyware? Spyware is the general term for â€Å"describing software whose purpose is to collect demographic and usage information from your computer, usually for advertising purposes. The term is also used to describe software that ‘sneaks’ onto the system or performs other activities hidden to the user.†1 Basically, spyware is a program that runs in the background of a computer, unbeknownst to the user, that has multiple abilities. The most non-intrusive task is using spyware as a form of copy protection. Intuit, the company that produces the popular tax program TurboT... ...eve Gibson, â€Å"The Anatomy of File Download Spyware,† Gibson Research Corporation, (4 March 2003). 6. Jason Anders, â€Å"Net Filter Spies on Kids’ Surfing,† Wall Street Journal, 25 January 2001, 1. 7. Jason Anders, â€Å"Net Filter Spies on Kids’ Surfing,† Wall Street Journal, 25 January 2001, 2. 8. George Lawton, â€Å"Invasive Software: Who’s Inside Your Computer?† Computer, July 2002, 15. 9. John Borland and Rachel Konrad, â€Å"PC Invaders Camp Out in Hard Drives,† Cnet News, 18 April 2002, (4 March 2003). 10. Ed Foster, â€Å"Sneakwrapping a Virus,† Infoworld, 4 November 2002, 64. 11. Staff Writer, â€Å"Sen. Edwards Intro’s ‘Spyware Control Act,’† Financial Times, 9 October 2000, 1. 12. Staff Writer, â€Å"Sen. Edwards Intro’s ‘Spyware Control Act,’† Financial Times, 9 October 2000, 1.

Data Definition Language Essay

Describe the ways in which database technologies could be used by an office stationery supply company to achieve low-cost leadership. Answer: Sales databases could be used to make the supply chain more efficient and minimize warehousing and transportation costs. You can also use sales databases, as well as text mining and sentiment analysis, to determine what supplies are in demand by which customers and whether needs are different in different geographical areas. Business intelligence databases could be used to predict future trends in office supply needs, to help anticipate demand, and to determine the most efficient methods of transportation and delivery. Identify and describe three basic operations used to extract useful sets of data from a relational database. Answer: The select operation creates a subset consisting of all records (rows) in the table that meets stated criteria. The join operation combines relational tables to provide the user with more information than is available in individual tables. The project operation creates a subset consisting of columns in a table, permitting the user to create new tables that contain only the information required. List and describe three main capabilities or tools of a DBMS. Answer: A data definition capability to specify the structure of the content of the database. This capability would be used to create database tables and to define the characteristics of the fields in each table. A data dictionary to store definitions of data elements in the database and their characteristics. In large corporate databases, the data dictionary may capture additional information, such as usage; ownership; authorization; security; and the individuals, business functions, programs, and reports that use each data element. A data manipulation language, such as SQL, that is used to add, change, delete, and retrieve the data in the database. This language contains commands that permit end users and programming specialists to extract data from the database to satisfy information requests and develop applications.